INTRODUCTION:

On Earth, freshwater is a naturally occurring resource that is not evenly distributed. Life depends on it to survive. In many parts of the world, it already has a limited supply. As migration, industrialization, and climate changed over the next century, it would become much more limited. The over use of fertilizers for agricultural purposes and the discharge of household and industrial trash degrade groundwater throughout the Indian subcontinent. Contaminants from agricultural operations are a major concern for the development of groundwater resources because they are considered to be one of the most important economic resources for living². Water chemistry is significantly impacted by mining and agricultural activities, solid waste disposal, and household and agricultural waste. Natural factors that influence water chemistry include precipitation patterns and amounts, geological features of watersheds and aquifers, climatic influences, and the many roles played by the interaction of rocks, water, and sediments in the aquifer. The chemistry of groundwater is regulated by the rocks that water flows through. The World Health Organization estimates that a shortage of potable water affects about half of the world's population. When determining whether groundwater is suitable for irrigation and human use, its physicochemical behavior is a crucial consideration³.

Since water quality has a direct impact on human health, it is a critical problem for humanity. Since groundwater is the primary supply of drinking and agricultural water in the majority of India, it is highly prized. Due to recurrent monsoon failures, a significant portion of the country lacks access to rainfall, which has led to a significant increase in groundwater exploitation in recent decades, especially for agricultural purposes. Currently, groundwater provides more than 50% of the water needed for industrial and urban purposes, 55% for irrigation, and 85% for home usage in rural areas. About 70% of the nation's irrigation water needs were met by groundwater irrigation, which began with just 6.5 Mha in 1950–515 and was expanded to 46.5Mha in 2000–200117 [5]. This demonstrates unequivocally the increasing strain on groundwater supplies. Concern over the degradation of groundwater quality brought on by anthropogenic and geogenic activity is growing. A region's groundwater quality depends on a number of physical, chemical, and biological factors. The quality of groundwater is just as crucial as its quantity. Both human health and plant growth are negatively impacted by poor water quality. It slows the improvement of rural residents' living standards and lowers agricultural output and the agrarian economy. drinkable water is defined as water that is devoid of harmful microorganisms and chemicals that cause disease. Most rural residents lack access to drinkable water for household usage. Groundwater quality has also declined in a number of Indian locations as a result of fast urbanization and population growth⁶. Understanding groundwater quality and its appropriateness for irrigation and home use is the goal of the current investigation. For the majority of the year, groundwater is used directly for agricultural purposes and as a rural water source without adequate treatment. The weathering of the sandstone and the agrochemicals used for irrigation in this region may also contaminate the groundwater. But as of now, no research has been done in the rural Periyakulam taluk area regarding drinking and irrigation purposes.⁷

Water is one of the many diverse and abundant natural resources that India possesses. The most amazing, plentiful, and practical substance found in nature is water. Water is considered to be the most important of the numerous elements necessary for the survival of humans, animals, and plants. Humans may live for several days without food, but water is so necessary that life is impossible without it.In addition to being necessary for the survival of plants and animals, water holds a special place in industry. Around the world, groundwater is a significant source of water⁸. The physical, chemical, and bacteriological characteristics of groundwater determine its quantity and appropriateness for irrigation and human consumption. Its growth and management are essential for agricultural output, poverty alleviation, environmental preservation, and long-term economic growth. Because groundwater is depleted more quickly than it is naturally restored, people in some parts of the world are experiencing severe water shortages. Numerous and varied stresses are placed on the amount and quality of water resources as well as on access to them by human development and population increase⁹. Since water quality assessment and monitoring form the cornerstone of water quality management, there has been a growing need to regularly measure a variety of water quality variables in order to monitor the condition of many rivers and groundwater. Understanding the structure and function of a specific water body may be aided by physico-chemical research. Ground water regime monitoring is an endeavor to gather data on ground water levels and chemical quality by representative sampling¹⁰. The majority of Indians rely primarily on groundwater resources for drinking, household, industrial, and agricultural purposes due to the insufficient quantity of surface waters^11,12.

Through the municipal network and several private boreholes, India's numerous cities and numerous large towns obtain their water supply from groundwater for various purposes. In Asia alone, almost one billion people are directly reliant on groundwater supplies, and in India, the majority of people rely solely on groundwater for their drinking water. Compared to surface water, groundwater is thought to be significantly cleaner and less polluted. However, long-term releases of solid waste dumps, home sewage, and industrial effluents contaminate groundwater and lead to health issues^14,15. The rate at which pollutants are released into the environment is far higher than the rate at which they are purified in recent years due to the ongoing population growth, fast industrialization, and related technologies including waste disposal. In many regions of India, reliance on groundwater has grown significantly in recent years. In order to evaluate the quality of groundwater in any basin and/or urban region that affects the usability of water for household, agricultural, and industrial uses, physico-chemical examination of water is crucial. The significance of groundwater for drinking and other purposes has led to extensive research on its environmental issues, including pollution transport^16,17. Numerous studies have examined the hydrochemical properties and groundwater contamination in various basins and metropolitan areas that arise from human interference, primarily from agricultural practices and wastewater from homes and businesses. Significant alterations in water quality and biological status are also brought about by natural events including earthquakes, hurricanes, algal blooms, and volcanoes. The provision of potable water of high quality is crucial for both illness prevention and enhancing human well-being. There is no such thing as pure water in nature^18,19. Living and non-living, soluble and insoluble, organic and inorganic components are all present in natural water, and its quality varies over time and between locations. There is a clear correlation between environmental contamination and water contamination. Surface water (lakes, rivers, streams, ponds, etc.) or ground water (aquifers, ranney wells, etc.) are the two sources of potable water. Nevertheless, neither source of water is usually suitable for human consumption²⁰.

This study in Amroha City aims to evaluate groundwater quality for drinking and assess its suitability for irrigation by applying standardized criteria. The findings are expected to offer insights into ensuring a safe water supply for both domestic and agricultural needs. Additionally, this research may provide valuable information to support the conservation and effective management of groundwater resources in the region⁴.

As per the 2011 Census, Amroha is classified as a "C" class city in western Uttar Pradesh, with an approximate population of 1.9 million. Situated west of Moradabad District, Amroha shares borders with the districts of Meerut, Hapur, Sambhal, and Buland Shahar. The district comprises 11 police stations, 6 blocks, 3 tehsils, and 1,133 villages, covering a total area of 2,470 square kilometers. Geographically, Amroha lies between latitudes 28° 54' North to 39° 6' North and longitudes 78° 28' East to 78° 39' East, with elevation ranging from 177 feet to a high of 240 feet above sea level. The surrounding areas include Bijnore to the north, Sambhal to the south, and Sadar and districts of Ghaziabad, Meerut, and Buland Shahar to the west. The Ganga River forms a natural boundary, separating Amroha from Ghaziabad, Meerut, and Buland Shahar. Over recent decades, Amroha has undergone significant population growth and modernization. However, industrial activities in parts of the district are causing pollution in groundwater, posing risks to the quality and safety of this vital resource. The situation calls for urgent attention and measures to control and mitigate pollution in order to protect the region's groundwater and ensure environmental sustainability for the community’s health and economic well-being¹³.

MATERIAL AND METHODS:

Water samples were collected from seven locations in Amroha city using India Mark II (IM2) hand pumps. Standard procedures and methodologies were followed to quantitatively assess the physico-chemical parameters of water quality^1,21. All chemicals used were of Analytical Reagent (AR) grade unless otherwise specified. Samples were collected in 1.5-liter polypropylene bottles that were pre-cleaned with distilled water and diluted acid, then dried in an oven. Before the final water samples were taken, each bottle was rinsed three times with the collected water. Labels on the bottles recorded the sampling date and source. For each site, three samples were collected and analyzed, and the average of these three values is presented here. A blank titration was also performed for each volumetric measurement. The equipment used included the Century CP 901 pH meter and the RI Conductivity meter. The measured parameters include pH, conductivity, chemical and biological oxygen demand, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, total solids, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, chloride, and alkalinity. Sampling site details are summarized in Table 1²².

RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

Table 2-3 displays site-wise estimated values with statistical values for twelve physico-chemical parameters along with the W.H.O. standards that correspond to them. The map of sampling sites in Figure 1-2. The following information on Amroha City's ground water quality was discovered after a critical review of the data.

A solution's pH indicates whether it is acidic or alkaline. When the pH of water exceeds the acceptable range, it can damage cell mucous membranes and make the water supply system corrosive. All of the water samples taken from the chosen locations had pH values between 7.58 and 7.97. Every water sample had a pH value that was higher than the WHO standard. The most crucial metric for defining salinity risk and water suitability for irrigation is EC. It shows how much total dissolved solid there is. The range of EC values was 0.540 to 1.311 μS/cm. The extended and intensive farming operations and the geological conditions that acquire significant concentrations of the dissolved minerals are probably the causes of the high conductivity value in all of the samples.

In natural water systems, biodegradable organics' oxygen-demanding properties are crucial. The BOD levels in the groundwater samples used in this investigation were 17 and 32 ppm. The findings demonstrated that practically every site in the study area had higher BOD values. The Chemical Oxygen Demand test is a valuable tool for determining the level of pollution in sewage and industrial waste. The quantity of oxygen needed for a sample's organic and inorganic materials to oxidize is known as the chemical oxygen demand. The COD range in the current study is 32–55 ppm. For every study area, higher chemical oxygen demand values are observed.

The dissolved calcium and magnesium ions from sedimentary rocks are the main sources of hardness in water, whereas ions of iron, zinc, manganese, barium, and aluminum also contribute slightly. All of the drinking water samples had total hardness levels ranging from 425 ppm to 640 ppm. All of the water samples, meanwhile, revealed that the hardness range above the WHO-permissible standards. Because calcium is found in most rocks in large quantities and is strongly correlated with hardness, it is highly prevalent in groundwater. According to the WHO, calcium concentrations range from 325 to 498 ppm and are found to be higher above the allowable limit in numerous places. Because the breakdown of minerals rich in magnesium is a slow process, magnesium typically exists in lower concentrations than calcium. Magnesium concentrations range from 50 to 205 ppm, and the majority of samples were found to be higher than the WHO-recommended threshold of 30 ppm. The water has a disagreeable taste because the levels of calcium and magnesium in it are higher than what is allowed in the study area.

In the research region, the total solids value ranges from 915 to 1345 ppm. The usage of salts during the dyeing process may be the cause of the high TS. The term "total dissolved solids" describes the organic matter and inorganic salts that are present in water. These can be caused by the existence of hydrogen carbonate, carbonates, potassium, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and ions of nitrate, sulfate, and chloride. The drinking water samples that were taken from different locations had total dissolved solids contents that ranged from 725 ppm to 896 ppm. All of the water samples, however, had TDS values above the WHO recommended threshold of 500 ppm. Total suspended solids in ground water samples varied from 103 to 449 parts per million in the current investigation. Putrefaction from suspended particulates that include a lot of organic matter might leave the stream without any dissolved oxygen.

The amount of chloride in semi-arid areas brought on by fertilizer applications, household sewage, and/or leaching from top soil layers. Normal cell processes in plants and animals depend on trace levels of chlorides. Few samples were found to be above the recommended limit for chloride concentration, which ranges from 77 to 190 ppm. The samples' alkalinity falls between 174 and 335 parts per million. All of the water samples have significant alkalinity levels, which prevents the groundwater samples from becoming acidic.

Table 1: Details of public places

Site Number	Public Places	Noticed Activity	Evident Water Quality
1	Amroha Block	Drinking and Bathing	Pale yellow on standing, odourless
2	Tehsil Amroha	Drinking and Bathing	Colourless, odourless
3	Railway Station	Drinking, Washing and Bathing	Pale yellow on standing, odourless
4	District Court	Drinking and Bathing	Colourless, odourless
5	Nagar Palika Parishad	Drinking and Bathing	Pale yellow on standing, odourless
6	Collectrate Amroha	Drinking and Bathing	Colourless, odourless
7	Roadways	Drinking and Bathing	Colourless, odourless

Table 2: Values of various physico-chemical parameters estimated at each site in relation to their WHO standards

S. No.	Parameters	Units	Site 1	Site 2	Site 3	Site 4	Site 5	Site 6	Site 7	WHO Standards
1	pH	-	7.78	7.79	7.97	7.81	7.66	7.58	7.75	7.0-8.5
2	Conductivity	µS/cm	0.872	0.881	0.977	1.311	0.742	0.646	0.540	0.300
3	Biological Oxygen Demand	ppm	25	26	28	32	21	18	17	6
4	Chemical Oxygen Demand	ppm	32	33	55	39	41	36	38	10
5	Total Hardness	ppm	452	470	640	568	443	454	425	100
6	Calcium	ppm	345	370	435	498	325	365	375	100
7	Magnesium	ppm	107	100	205	70	118	89	50	30
8	Total Solids	ppm	945	940	1345	989	985	925	915	500
9	Total Dissolved Solids	ppm	725	785	896	870	765	778	812	500
10	Total Suspended Solids	ppm	220	155	449	119	220	147	103	-
11	Chloride	ppm	81	91	175	190	92	95	77	200
12	Alkalinity	ppm	245	248	325	289	174	196	335	100

Table-3: Statistical values

S. No.	Parameters	Units	Minimum	Maximum	Average	Standard Deviation
1	pH	-	7.58	7.97	7.76	0.122
2	Conductivity	µS/cm	0.54	1.311	0.852	0.251
3	Biological Oxygen Demand	ppm	17	32	23.85	5.45
4	Chemical Oxygen Demand	ppm	32	55	39.14	7.69
5	Total Hardness	ppm	425	640	493.14	79.67
6	Calcium	ppm	325	498	387.57	59.36
7	Magnesium	ppm	50	205	105.57	49.50
8	Total Solids	ppm	915	1345	1006.28	151.97
9	Total Dissolved Solids	ppm	725	896	804.42	60.11
10	Total Suspended Solids	ppm	103	449	201.85	118.02
11	Chloride	ppm	77	190	114.42	47.13
12	Alkalinity	ppm	174	335	258.85	61.29

Figure-1: Map of Amroha district (Source of map ArchGIS Pro 2.9 software)

Figure-2: Map of sampling sites in Amroha City (Source of map Google Earth and ArchGIS Pro 2.9 software)

CONCLUSION:

Following discussion, it was determined that the majority of the metrics in the research area's water sources had excessive values compared to the WHO's allowable limits. However, the concentration levels of the elements under study have been impacted by surface runoff from non-point agricultural sources, leaching from natural geological formations, growing urbanization, and domestic sewage. Extensive human activities, including industrial growth, construction, and the conversion of agricultural and forest land for development within the catchment area, are likely major contributors to significant water contamination. This situation underscores the insufficient protection of regional water sources. Based on physico-chemical analysis, water sources in the area are unsuitable for irrigation, drinking, domestic, and industrial purposes.

Results indicate that the groundwater in Amroha City is highly alkaline, extremely hard, and heavily polluted with organic contaminants, reflecting a continuing decline in water quality. According to the above chemical analysis, many water quality parameters have reached or are near certain thresholds, but there is still time to effectively address and manage groundwater contamination in Amroha City.

ACKNOWLEDGE:

We wish to express our cordial thanks to Prof. R. K. Dwivedi, Dean, Faculty of Engineering, Teerthanker Mahaveer University, Moradabad for their encouragement and providing the requires.

REFERENCES:

1. APHA, AWWA. 1998. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association, Washington D.C.

2. Caleb Adwangashi Tabwassah and Gabriel Ike Obiefun. Geophysical and Geotechnical Investigation of Cham Failed Dam Project, Ne Nigeria. Research Journal of Recent Sciences. 2012; 1(2): 1-18.

3. Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), 2018. Report on Aquifer Mapping and Groundwater Management Plan in Amroha District, UP, India (AAP: 2017–18).

4. Ekbal and Khan, Ali Taqyeem. Hydrogeochemical Characterization of Groundwater Quality in Parts of Amroha District, Western Uttar Pradesh, India. Hydro Research. 2022; 5: 54-70.

5. Garcia M. G., Hidalgo Del V. M., Blesa M. A. Geochemistry of groundwater in the alluvial plain of Tucuman province, Argentina. Hydrogeology Journal. 2001; 9: 597–610.

6. Gaurav Kumar Rastogi, Navneet Kumar, D.K. Sinha and Pankaj Kumar Singh. Monitoring Of Underground Drinking Water Quality At Moradabad, India. YMER. 2024; 23(5): 47-53.

7. Goldman R. C., and Horne J. A. 1983. Limnology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book.

8. Herojeet, R., Rishi, M.S., Lata, R. Quality characterization and pollution source identification of surface water using multivariate statistical techniques, Nalagarh Valley, Himachal Pradesh, India. Appl. Water Sci. 2017; 7: 2137–2156.

9. Jain S. K., Agarwal P. K., and Singh V. P. 2007. Hydrology and water resources of India. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer (13-978-1-4020-5180-7, e-book).

10. Khan, R., Jharia, D.C. Groundwater quality assessment for drinking purpose in Raipur city, Chhattisgarh using water quality index and geographical information system. J. Geol. Soc. India. 2017; 90: 69–76.

11. Khan, T.A. Groundwater quality evaluation using multivariate methods, in parts of Ganga Sot Sub-Basin, Ganga Basin. India. J. Water Res. Protect. 2015; 7(9): 769–780.

12. Manahan S. E. 1994. Environmental Chemistry (6th ed, pp. 179–180). Florida: Lewis Publishers.

13. Kumar, Navneet and Sinha, D.K. Drinking water quality management through correlation studies among various physico-chemical parameters: A case study. International Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2010; 1(2): 253-259.

14. Kumar, Navneet and Sinha, D.K. Effects of Industrial Effluents on Ramganga River Water Quality at Moradabad. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection. 2023; 43(9): 829-834.

15. Kumar, Navneet. Physicochemical and Biological Characteristics of Two Wetlands in Dhampur. Bulletin of Pure and Applied Sciences-Chemistry. 2021; 40(1): 70-73.

16. Kumar, Navneet. Statistical Study of Underground Water Quality near the Bank of Ramganga River at Moradabad, UP. Bulletin of Pure and Applied Sciences Chemistry. 2022; 41(2): 78-81.

17. Kumar, Navneet. Study of Biological Oxygen Demand and Chemical Oxygen Demand of Waste Water of Gajraula, District Amroha, UP. Bulletin of Pure and Applied Sciences Chemistry. 2022; 41(1): 49-51.

18. Ouyang Y. Evaluation of river water quality monitoring stations by principle component analysis. Water Research. 2005; 39: 2621–2635.

19. Selvam, S., Manimaran, G., Sivasubramanian, P. GIS-based Evaluation of Water Quality Index of groundwater resources around Tuticorin coastal city, south India. Environ. Earth Sci. 2014; 71: 2847–2867.

20. Verma, P., Singh, P.K., Sinha, R.R., Tiwari, A.K. Assessment of groundwater quality status by using water quality index (WQI) and geographic information system (GIS) approaches-a case study of the Bokaro district, India. Appl Water Sci. 2020; 10(1): 27.

21. WHO 2004. Guidelines for drinking-water quality (Vol. 1, 3rd ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization.

22. WHO, 1984. Guidelines for drinking water quality. Vol 2, Health criteria and other supporting information, WHO Publ, Geneva, 335.

Received on 21.03.2025 Revised on 15.04.2025

Accepted on 05.05.2025 Published on 15.05.2025

Available online from May 17, 2025

Research J. Science and Tech. 2025; 17(2):127-132.

DOI: 10.52711/2349-2988.2025.00018

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Creative Commons License.